Module 6: Psychological Disorders

Among the many risk factors for mental disorders are genetics and other pathophysiological factors. While other factors, such as environmental factors or substance abuse, can also have an impact, it is important to recognize the connections between biological factors and psychological disorders.

Ranging from anxiety to schizophrenia, psychological disorders offer unique challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Clearly, the presence of these disorders can be life-altering for patients, but they can also significantly impact families and other loved ones.   

This week, you examine fundamental concepts of psychological disorders. You explore common psychological disorders, and you apply the key terms and concepts that help communicate the pathophysiological nature of these issues to patients. 

Learning Objectives

Students will:

• Analyze concepts and principles of pathophysiology across the lifespan 

Week 9: Concepts of Psychological Disorders

In this exercise, you will complete a 10- to 20-essay type question Knowledge Check to gauge your understanding of this module’s content.  

Possible topics covered in this Knowledge Check include:

• Generalized anxiety disorder
• Depression
• Bipolar disorders
• Schizophrenia
• Delirium and dementia
• Obsessive compulsive disease

Complete the Knowledge Check By Day 7 of Week 9

Knowledge Check: Psychological Disorders

Question 1

A 21-year-old male college student was brought to Student Health Services by his girlfriend who was concerned about changes in her boyfriend’s behaviors. The girlfriend says that recently he began hearing voices and believes everyone is out to get him. The student says he is unable to finish school because the voices told him he was not smart enough. The girlfriend relates episodes of unexpected rage and crying. Past medical history noncontributory but family history positive for a first cousin who “had mental problems”. Denies current drug abuse but states he smoked marijuana every day during his junior and senior years of high school. He admits to drinking heavily on weekends at various fraternity houses. Physical exam reveals thin, anxious disheveled male who, during conversations, stops talking, cocks his head and appears to be listening to something. There is poor eye contact and conversation is rambling. Based on the observed behaviors and information from girlfriend, the APRN believes the student has schizophrenia.  

Question 1 of 4: Describe the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and relate those symptoms to the case study patient.  

Answer: Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations that may be auditory, olfactory, somatic-tactile, visual, voices commenting, and voices conversing. Delusions are also positive symptoms and include delusion of being controlled, delusion of mind reading, delusion of reference, delusion of grandiosity, guilt, persecution, somatic thought broadcasting, thought insertion and thought withdrawal. Thought disorder symptoms include distractible speech, incoherence, illogicality, circumstantially, and derailment. Bizarre behaviors are other positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Those behaviors include aggressiveness and agitated states, clothing appearance, repetitive stereotyped, and social and sexual behavior. This patient exhibited signs of auditory hallucinations, disheveled appearance, and persecution.

Question 2

A 21-year-old male college student was brought to Student Health Services by his girlfriend who was concerned about changes in her boyfriend’s behaviors. The girlfriend says that recently he began hearing voices and believes everyone is out to get him. The student says he is unable to finish school because the voices told him he was not smart enough. The girlfriend relates episodes of unexpected rage and crying. Past medical history noncontributory but family history positive for a first cousin who “had mental problems”. Denies current drug abuse but states he smoked marijuana every day during his junior and senior years of high school. He admits to drinking heavily on weekends at various fraternity houses. Physical exam reveals thin, anxious disheveled male who, during conversations, stops talking, cocks his head and appears to be listening to something. There is poor eye contact and conversation is rambling. Based on the observed behaviors and information from girlfriend, the APRN believes the student has schizophrenia

Question 2 of 4: Explain the genetics of schizophrenia

Answer: The causes of schizophrenia are not known. There are probably at least 2 sets of risk factors, genetic and perinatal. In addition, undefined socioenvironmental factors may increase the risk of schizophrenia in international migrants or urban populations of ethnic minorities. Increased paternal age is associated with a greater risk of schizophrenia.

The risk of schizophrenia is elevated in biologic relatives of persons with schizophrenia but not in adopted relatives. The risk of schizophrenia in first-degree relatives of persons with schizophrenia is 10%. If both parents have schizophrenia, the risk of schizophrenia in their child is 40%. Concordance for schizophrenia is about 10% for dizygotic twins and 40-50% for monozygotic twins.

Genome-wide association studies have identified many candidate genes, but the individual gene variants that have been implicated so far account for only a small fraction of schizophrenia cases, and these findings have not always been replicated in different studies. The genes that have been found mostly change a gene’s expression or a protein’s function in a small way.

Question 3

A 21-year-old male college student was brought to Student Health Services by his girlfriend who was concerned about changes in her boyfriend’s behaviors. The girlfriend says that recently he began hearing voices and believes everyone is out to get him. The student says he is unable to finish school because the voices told him he was not smart enough. The girlfriend relates episodes of unexpected rage and crying. Past medical history noncontributory but family history positive for a first cousin who “had mental problems”. Denies current drug abuse but states he smoked marijuana every day during his junior and senior years of high school. He admits to drinking heavily on weekends at various fraternity houses. Physical exam reveals thin, anxious disheveled male who, during conversations, stops talking, cocks his head and appears to be listening to something. There is poor eye contact and conversation is rambling. 

Based on the observed behaviors and information from girlfriend, the APRN believes the student has schizophrenia.  

Question 3 of 4: The APRN reviews recent literature and reads that neurotransmitters are involved in the development of schizophrenia. What roles do neurotransmitters play in the development of schizophrenia?

Answer: Abnormalities of the dopaminergic system are thought to exist in schizophrenia. The first observable effective antipsychotic drugs, chlorpromazine and reserpine, were structurally different from each other, but they shared antidopaminergic properties. Drugs that diminish the firing rates of mesolimbic dopamine D2 neurons are antipsychotic, and drugs that stimulate these neurons (eg, amphetamines) exacerbate psychotic symptoms.

Hypodopaminergic activity in the mesocortical system, leading to negative symptoms, and hyperdopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic system, leading to positive symptoms, may coexist. The newer antipsychotic drugs block both dopamine D2 and serotonin (5- hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) receptors.

Question 4

A 21-year-old male college student was brought to Student Health Services by his girlfriend who was concerned about changes in her boyfriend’s behaviors. The girlfriend says that recently he began hearing voices and believes everyone is out to get him. The student says he is unable to finish school because the voices told him he was not smart enough. The girlfriend relates episodes of unexpected rage and crying. Past medical history noncontributory but family history positive for a first cousin who “had mental problems”. Denies current drug abuse but states he smoked marijuana every day during his junior and senior years of high school. He admits to drinking heavily on weekends at various fraternity houses. Physical exam reveals thin, anxious disheveled male who, during conversations, stops talking, cocks his head and appears to be listening to something. There is poor eye contact and conversation is rambling. 

Based on the observed behaviors and information from girlfriend, the APRN believes the student has schizophrenia.  

Question 4 of 4: The APRN reviews recent literature and reads that structural problems in the brain may be involved in the development of schizophrenia. Explain what structural abnormalities are seen in people with schizophrenia.

Answer: Advances in neuroimaging studies show differences between the brains of those with schizophrenia and those without this disorder. In people with schizophrenia, the ventricles are somewhat larger, there is decreased brain volume in medial temporal areas, and changes are seen in the hippocampus.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies show anatomic abnormalities in a network of neocortical and limbic regions and interconnecting white-matter tracts. Some studies using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to examine white matter found that 2 networks of white-matter tracts are reduced in schizophrenia.

Brain imaging showed reductions in whole-brain volume and in left and right prefrontal and temporal lobe volumes in many people who are at high genetic risk for schizophrenia. The changes in prefrontal lobes are associated with increasing severity of psychotic symptoms.

MRI studies of schizophrenic patients show that structural brain abnormalities may progress over time. The abnormalities identified included loss of whole-brain volume in both gray and white matter and increases in lateral ventricular volume.

Question 5

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 1 of 6: Discuss the role genetics plays in the development of bipolar 2 disorders.  

Answer: The pathophysiology of bipolar disorder, or manic-depressive illness (MDI), has not been fully identified, and there are no objective biologic markers that correspond definitively with the disease state. Twin, family, and adoption studies all indicate that bipolar disorder has a significant genetic component. Firstdegree relatives of a person with bipolar disorder are approximately 7 times more likely to develop bipolar disorder than the rest of the population, and the heritability of bipolar I disorder (BPI) has recently been estimated at 0.73.

Bipolar individuals, who may exhibit psychotic behavior, have deficits in reelin expression linked to genetic loci located on the chromosome 22, which confers susceptibility to schizophrenia. Given that, there still are large variations in clinical symptoms suggests that developmental and environmental factors are as important as genetic factors in contributing to the etiology of mood disorders.

Question 6

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 2 of 6: Explain how the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system may be associated with bipolar type 2 disease. 

Answer: The HPA system plays an essential role in an individual’s ability to cope with stress. Chronic stress induced activation of the HPA system and elevate glucocorticoid secretion are found in many people with bipolar disease. function. Exaggerated release of corticotrophin-releasing factor contributes to increased adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion and a subsequent elevation of circulating cortisol. These disturbances are most likely attributable to deficits in cortico-limbic regulation with consequent amygdala over activity and a compromised hippocampal regulatory role. Also, glucocorticoid receptors appear to have diminished sensitivity in mood disorders possibly due to elevation of inflammatory cytokines, thereby disrupting physiological feedback regulation on the HPA axis and immune system.

Question 7

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 3 of 6: Discuss the role inflammatory cytokines play in the development and exacerbation of bipolar type 2 symptoms 

Answer: Studies have fully demonstrated the association between manic and depressive episodes and a pro-inflammatory state involving both the innate and adaptive immune system. Peripheral inflammatory signals can gain access to the CNS through several pathways including areas of the brain not covered by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) such as the circumventricular organ, afferent vagal fibers may convey the peripheral cytokines and other inflammatory mediators to their nuclei, including nucleus tractus solitararius, BBB cells have the ability to import cytokines via active transport and peripheral immune cells such as macrophages.

Inflammatory cytokines activate microglia in the brain causing them to intensify the inflammatory response by releasing reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, cytokines and chemokines. This chemical milieu of oxidative stress and inflammatory signals precipitates a change in astroglial function. Also, altered astroglia diminish their neurotrophic production including brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and start extruding cytokines and glutamate. Glutamate released from the astroglia accesses extra-synaptic N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, causing suppression of BDNF synthesis and activation of the proapoptotic cascade. QA is a potent NMDA agonist that may further potentiate excitotoxicity.

Question 8

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 4 of 6: Discuss the role of the amygdala in bipolar disorder. 

Answer: With the development of functional and structural imaging, more brain structures are now under review. Imaging studies indicate decreased cerebral blood flow and glucose metabolism in the dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex of individuals affected by major depression or bipolar disorder. The brain amygdala appears key in modulating fear and anxiety. Patients with anxiety disorders often show heightened amygdala response to anxiety cues. The amygdala and other limbic system structures are connected to prefrontal cortex regions. Hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala may relate to reduced activation thresholds when responding to perceived social threat. Prefrontal-limbic activation abnormalities have been shown to reverse with clinical response to psychologic or pharmacologic interventions.

Question 9

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 6 of 6: How does neurochemical dysregulation contribute to bipolar disorders?

Answer: The monoamine theory of depression predicts that the underlying pathophysiologic basis of depression is a depletion in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine in the central nervous system. In contrast, people with mania have elevated concentrations of monoamine.

Question 10

A 34-year-old female was brought to the Urgent Care Center by her husband who is very concerned about the changes he has seen in his wife for the past 3 months. He states that his wife has had been depressed and irritable, has complaints of extreme fatigue, has lost 10 pounds and has had insomnia. He has come home from work to find his wife sitting in front of the TV and not moving for hours. In the past few days, she suddenly has become very hyperactive, has been talking incessantly, has been easily distracted and seems to “flit from one thing to another.”. She hasn’t slept in 3 days. The wife went on an excessive shopping spree for new clothes that resulted in their credit card being denied for exceeding the line of credit. The wife is unable to sit in the exam room and is currently pacing the hallway muttering to herself and is reluctant to talk with or be examined the ARNP. Physical observation shows agitated movements, rapid fire speech, and hyperactivity. Based on the history and observable symptoms, the APRN suspects that the patient has bipolar type 2 disorder. The APRN refers the patient and husband to the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner for evaluation and treatment. 

Question 6 of 6: What is the current status of the use of nutraceuticals in management of depression? 

Answer: There is a growing interest in nutraceutical therapy in the treatment of bipolar and depressive disorders. Certain studies have shown that the addition of zinc to an established antidepressant therapies may help. Zinc’s functions included growth, development, immune responses, neurotransmission, and hormone storage and release. In the brain, zinc is found in glutamatergic neurons that modulate the circuitry involving the cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus that affect mood and cognitive functions. There needs to be large scale studies that reliably replicate the antidepressant effects of nutraceuticals for depression.

Question 11

A 27-year-old female presents to the Emergency Room, with a chief complaint of palpitations, rapid heart rate, sweating, tremors, and inability to catch her breath. The symptoms started about 10 hour ago and have gotten worse. She states she has some chest pain that remains constant no matter what. She also has numbness and tingling around her mouth and lips. She says she knows something “terrible is going to happen”. She denies having any similar episode in the past. Past medical history noncontributory. Social history significant for recent stressor of applying for medical school and taking the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). She had not received the results prior to the episode but is sure that the failed the test. Says she doesn’t know if anyone else in her family has had similar episodes. Physical exam reveals a thin, anxious appearing female who is profusely sweating despite cool ambient air temperature. BP 176/88, Pulse 136, and respirations 26. Electrocardiogram negative for evidence of myocardial infarction and all lab data within normal limits except for mild respiratory alkalosis. The patient’s symptoms are subsiding and the patient states she is feeling better. The APRN suspects the patient has just experienced a panic attack.  

Question 1 of 2: What are panicogens and how do they contribute to the development of panic attack symptoms?

Answer: While the cause of panic disorders/attacks is not fully understood, it appears that in panic-prone individuals, chemicals called panicogens can elicit the physical symptoms of panic attacks. Panciogens include caffeine, carbon dioxide, cholecystokinin, sodium lactate, and andregenic receptor agonists such as yohimbine. Carbon dioxide and sodium lactate alter brain pH balance that panic prone individuals are especially sensitive in detecting. Heighted pH sensitivity in the amygdala may play a role in generating fearful perceptions and activating the cerebral cortex and neural circuits in the temporal lobe and brainstem. This further facilitates the production of panic symptoms.

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Question 12

A 27-year-old female presents to the Emergency Room, with a chief complaint of palpitations, rapid heart rate, sweating, tremors, and inability to catch her breath. The symptoms started about 10 hour ago and have gotten worse. She states she has some chest pain that remains constant no matter what. She also has numbness and tingling around her mouth and lips. She says she knows something “terrible is going to happen”. She denies having any similar episode in the past. Past medical history noncontributory. Social history significant for recent stressor of applying for medical school and taking the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). She had not received the results prior to the episode but is sure that the failed the test. Says she doesn’t know if anyone else in her family has had similar episodes. Physical exam reveals a thin, anxious appearing female who is profusely sweating despite cool ambient air temperature. BP 176/88, Pulse 136, and respirations 26. Electrocardiogram negative for evidence of myocardial infarction and all lab data within normal limits except for mild respiratory alkalosis. The patient’s symptoms are subsiding and the patient states she is feeling better. The APRN suspects the patient has just experienced a panic attack.  

Question 2 of 2: How does the GABA-benzodiazepine (BZ) receptor systems contribute to panic attacks/disorders? 

Answer: BZ increases the GABAA ion channel response to GABA, elevating chloride ion influx and producing a neuronal inhibitory effect. There is a reduction in BZ receptor binding in brain regions including the hippocampus, insular, and prefrontal cortex. Drugs that block the benzodiazepine receptor are reported to increase panic attacks and feelings of anxiety, suggesting that an alteration in inhibitory neuromodulation contributes to panic disorders

Question 13

A 21-year-old female college junior makes an appointment to see the APRN in the Student Health Clinic. The student tells the APRN that it has gotten harder and harder for her to attend classes, especially her history class where the class is preparing for the semester’s end presentations. She says she is terrified to speak to the class and is considering dropping the class so she will not have to present. She has a significant impairment in social activities and has resigned from her sorority. She is unable to go to the library to study as she feels everyone is looking at her and mocking her. She admits to having some of these symptoms in high school, but the guidance counselor was able to work with her to decrease some of her symptoms. Past medical history noncontributory except for the milder symptoms exhibited in high school. Family history noncontributory. Social history positive for anxiety related to social situations that has had a negative impact on both her scholarly and social endeavors. The APRN diagnoses the student with social anxiety disorder (SAD).  

Question 1 of 2: Describe the areas of the brain that are associated with social anxiety disorder. 

Answer: Imaging studies demonstrate increased activity in the limbic and frontal cortical area. When people with SAD are exposed to facial expressions of threat, they perceive there is extreme, dislike, rejection or criticism. This implicates the amygdala and its connections to other brain regions. Heightened anxiety in SAD may arise from deficits in an inhibitory tone from the prefrontal cortical areas to the amygdala resulting in increased amygdala activation and a fear bias in threat-related processing. Studies have implicated abnormal signaling that shows decreased white matter connectivity between amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex

Question 14

A 21-year-old female college junior makes an appointment to see the APRN in the Student Health Clinic. The student tells the APRN that it has gotten harder and harder for her to attend classes, especially her history class where the class is preparing for the semester’s end presentations. She says she is terrified to speak to the class and is considering dropping the class so she will not have to present. She has a significant impairment in social activities and has resigned from her sorority. She is unable to go to the library to study as she feels everyone is looking at her and mocking her. She admits to having some of these symptoms in high school, but the guidance counselor was able to work with her to decrease some of her symptoms. Past medical history noncontributory except for the milder symptoms exhibited in high school. Family history noncontributory. Social history positive for anxiety related to social situations that has had a negative impact on both her scholarly and social endeavors. The APRN diagnoses the student with social anxiety disorder (SAD). 

Question 2 of 2: How is oxytocin associated with SAD? 

Answer: Oxytocin (OXT) is secreted by the posterior pituitary and is most often associated with childbirth and lactation. Increasingly, research has indicated that OCT has antianxiety effects by reducing HPA activation; promoting social attachment, and maternal behavior and increasing empathy and trust. OXT levels are reduced in people with SAD before and after playing a trust game, which normally increases OXT levels and promotes cooperation and reciprocity in those in controls groups. The reduction on OXT may account for the amygdala hyperactivity that goes along with excessive social avoidance and fear in people with SAD.

Question 15

A 36-year-old female comes to see the APRN in clinic with a chief complaint of “I’m so and I feel all keyed up all the time”. She states she feels restless, keyed up, and on edge most of the time. She fatigues easily and has difficulty concentrating and says her mind goes blank. She admits to being irritable and snapping at her coworkers which she worries will affect her job. She says the symptoms have been present for about 8 or 9 months. and Increased muscle tension. She has had difficulty falling asleep or stay sleeping. Further questioning revealed that prior to her symptoms, her parents got divorced which has been a great stressor for her. Past medical history noncontributory. Social history positive for a case of “nerves” when she was in high school that seemed to resolve after she graduated from college. No drug or alcohol history. The APRN believes the patient has generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).  

Question 1 of 2: Discuss the role of neurotransmitters in the expression of GAD.  

Answer: There is a reduction in α2-adrenergic receptor binding, a decrease in serotonin levels in CSF, and reduced platelet binding of paroxetine, which is a selective serotonin uptake inhibitor. There seems to be a reduction of BZ binding in the left temporal hemisphere.

Question 16

A 36-year-old female comes to see the APRN in clinic with a chief complaint of “I’m so and I feel all keyed up all the time”. She states she feels restless, keyed up, and on edge most of the time. She fatigues easily and has difficulty concentrating and says her mind goes blank. She admits to being irritable and snapping at her coworkers which she worries will affect her job. She says the symptoms have been present for about 8 or 9 months. and Increased muscle tension. She has had difficulty falling asleep or stay sleeping. Further questioning revealed that prior to her symptoms, her parents got divorced which has been a great stressor for her. Past medical history noncontributory. Social history positive for a case of “nerves” when she was in high school that seemed to resolve after she graduated from college. No drug or alcohol history. The APRN believes the patient has generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).  

Question 2 of 2: Explain the structural brain changes that occur in people with GAD. 

Answer: Elevated cingulate cortex activity is associated with increased anticipatory anxiety. When people with GAD are exposed to masked angry faces, it induces heightened right amygdala activation which correlated positively with the severity of anxiety. This study underscores the role of abnormal amygdala activity in attentional bias or vigilance to threats.

Question 17

A 27-year-old man comes to the Veteran’s Administration Hospital at the insistence of his fiancée who accompanies him to the appointment. She tells the APRN that her fiancée has not “been the same” since he returned from his second tour in Iraq.  He was an infantryman with a local Marine Reserve unit and served 2 tours and was honorably discharged. Since his return, he has had difficulty sleeping, and says he “sleeps with one eye open” and fears sleep. Deep sleep brings vivid nightmares. He grudgingly admits to having experienced several traumatic events during his second tour of duty. He is unwilling to discuss them and will not reveal specific details. He is short tempered and irritable and is afraid to be around people as he doesn’t want to snap at people and alienate them. He startles easily at loud noises, especially the sounds of cars backfiring. He admits to thinking there are threats everywhere and spends an excessive amount of time searching for them but never finding any. He has intrusive memories almost every day and says he really isn’t interested in doing much of anything. He is very worried that these symptoms are irreparably hurting his relationship with his fiancée who he loves very much. The APRN diagnoses him with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 

Question 1 of 2: Describe the changes seen in the brain structure in patients with PTSD.

Answer: PTSD frequently leads to changes in the anatomy and neurophysiology of the brain. Reduced size of the hippocampus is probably both a predisposing factor and a result of trauma. The amygdala, which is involved in processing emotions and modulating the fear response, seems to be overly reactive in patients with PTSD. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), which exhibits inhibitory control over the stress response and emotional reactivity of the amygdala, appears to be smaller and less responsive in individuals with PTSD. These brain structures play an important role in how fearful memories are stored, retrieved, and extinguished.

Question 18

A 27-year-old man comes to the Veteran’s Administration Hospital at the insistence of his fiancée who accompanies him to the appointment. She tells the APRN that her fiancée has not “been the same” since he returned from his second tour in Iraq.  He was an infantryman with a local Marine Reserve unit and served 2 tours and was honorably discharged. Since his return, he has had difficulty sleeping, and says he “sleeps with one eye open” and fears sleep. Deep sleep brings vivid nightmares. He grudgingly admits to having experienced several traumatic events during his second tour of duty. He is unwilling to discuss them and will not reveal specific details. He is short tempered and irritable and is afraid to be around people as he doesn’t want to snap at people and alienate them. He startles easily at loud noises, especially the sounds of cars backfiring. He admits to thinking there are threats everywhere and spends an excessive amount of time searching for them but never finding any. He has intrusive memories almost every day and says he really isn’t interested in doing much of anything. He is very worried that these symptoms are irreparably hurting his relationship with his fiancée who he loves very much. The APRN diagnoses him with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 

Question 2 of 2: Briefly discuss the role glucocorticoids may have on the development of PTSD. 

Answer: People with PTSD tend to have normal to low circulating levels of cortisol despite their ongoing stress and elevated levels of Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF). Cortisol leads to decreased production of CRF. If cortisol is low, then CRF continues to be high and stimulates norepinephrine release by the anterior cingulate. This norepinephrine contributes to the rapid heartbeat, and blood pressure elevations seen in people experiencing flashbacks.

Question 19

A 17-year-old male high school junior comes to the clinic to establish care. He recently moved from a relatively urban area to a very rural area and has just started his junior year in a new school. The mother states that she has noticed that her son has been frequently washing his hands and avoids contact with any dirty or soiled object. He uses paper towels or napkins over the knob on a door when opening it. According to the mother, this behavior has just appeared since moving. The patient, upon close questioning, admits that he is “grossed out” by some of the boys in the boys’ room since they use the toilet and do not wash their hand afterwards. He is worried about all the germs the boys are carrying around. Past medical history is noncontributory. Social history -lives with parents and 2 siblings in a house in a new town, is an honors student. Based on these behaviors, The APRN thinks the patient has obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).  

Question 1 of 2: What is primary pathophysiology of OCD? 

Answer: Neuroimaging studies have shown increases in blood flow and metabolic activity in the orbitofrontal cortex, limbic structures, caudate, and thalamus, with a trend toward right-sided predominance. There is a pathophysiological brain circuit that consists of the anterior thalamus, orbitofrontal cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and predominately in the basal ganglia subregions of the caudate and putamen is involved in OCD.

Question 20

A 17-year-old male high school junior comes to the clinic to establish care. He recently moved from a relatively urban area to a very rural area and has just started his junior year in a new school. The mother states that she has noticed that her son has been frequently washing his hands and avoids contact with any dirty or soiled object. He uses paper towels or napkins over the knob on a door when opening it. According to the mother, this behavior has just appeared since moving. The patient, upon close questioning, admits that he is “grossed out” by some of the boys in the boys’ room since they use the toilet and do not wash their hand afterwards. He is worried about all the germs the boys are carrying around. Past medical history is noncontributory. Social history -lives with parents and 2 siblings in a house in a new town. Is an honors student. Based on these behaviors, The APRN thinks the patient has obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).  

Question 2 of 2: Describe the role the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) has in reinforcement of obsessive behaviors. 

Answer: Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated hyperactivity of the dACC in people with OCD as compared to controls. The dACC is thought to be a key center that receives negative emotion and reinforcing information and integrates that information to direct motivated behavior.